Grotius merupakan ahli pemikir besar tentang negara dan hukum. Dia dianggap sebagai peletak dasar pertama, atau pelopor, bahkan pencipta daripada hukum alam modern. Meskipun Grotius adalah seorang pemeluk agama yang tekun, dan sangat percaya dengan adanya tuhan, namun dalam pengantar dari bukunya terlihat keangkuhan serta kelantangan dalam ucapanya, sebagai berikut:
“ Bahawa tuhan sendiri tidak dapat mengadakan perubahan suatu apapun pada kebenaran, bahawasanya dua kali dua itu adalah empat. Dengan demikian dapatlah ditunjukkan suatu lapangan yang berlaku umum, disamping keadaan terpecah belah di lapangan agama itu. Hukum alam itu adalah suatu peraturan dari akal murni dan kerana itu demikian tetapnya, hingga tuhan sendri tak dapat merubahnya. Sebab bagaimanakah boleh terjadi bahawa yang maha esa dapat bertindak bertentangan dengan apa yang patut menurut akal. Dalam kekuasaan pemikiran itu manusia mendapati kunci untuk pedoman hidup yang bernilai moral. Bahkan seandainya tuhan itu tidak ada, atau tidak memperdulikan manusia, maka akal itu akan memimpin manusia. Akal itu berlaku dengan tidak bergantung pada kekuasaan yang ghaib.”
Dengan demikian maka fisafat Grotius tentang negara dan hukum adalah suatau usaha untuk mengatasi segala perpecahan di lapangan agama, dengan berdasarkan akal manusia yang berlaku umum itu. Bahkan tidak hanya terbatas pada kaum kristien sahaja, melainkan juga berlaku untuk mengikat semua orang kafir dan atheis.(ilmu negara ms; 95)
Saya baru setahun mempelajari subjek "Falsafah Yunan" di King Saud Universiti. Dalam masa sama, subjek "Pendirian Islam Terhadap Falsafah" juga wajib saya & teman-teman mempelajarinya. Al-Hamdulillah pensyarah saya adalah Prof Dr Hassan Kamil warganegara Mesir yang sangat arif tentang falsafah Yunan tetapi bermanhaj Salaf. Sepengetahuan saya, seluruh sekolah & university kerajaan di Arab Saudi (24 university) tidak mengajarkan subjek falsafah kepada penuntutnya kecuali di University King Saud (Ijazah, Master & PhD) dan al-Imam University bagi pelajar Post Graduate sahaja. Demikian juga Negara Kuwait, sambil Mesir pada 2008 bercadang memansuhkan pendidikan falsafah kepada seluruh sekolahnya diatas cadangan lajnah perlaksanaan syariat Mesir. Ramai mengakui bahawa subjek falsafah ini adalah bidang yang sukar kerana ianya melibatkan pemikiran, ungkapan yang berbelit-belit, teori ciptaan akal yang pelbagai ragam, dan tabiatnya yang sukar difahami. Kadang-kadang pencipta kepada teori falsafah itu sendiri tidak memahaminya, kerana ilmu ini adalah berbentuk khayalan, syak dan tidak berpijak dibumi nyata kebanyakannya. Lebih parah lagi, apabila ilmu ini mula diminati -kerana kesukarannya- selepas zaman pemerintahan al-Makmun (wafat 218H) yang mengarahkan penterjemahan kitab-kitab asing kepada bahasa arab. Pada zaman al-Makmunlah bermulanya fitnah al-Quran sebagai makhluk, muktazilah dan bangunnya Imam Ahmad bin Hambal mempertahankan akidah Ahli Sunnah.
Memang tidak dinafikan bahawa sewajarnya kita mengambil manfaat ilmu daripada sesiapapun, sekalipun orang kafir. Sifat ilmu itu sentiasa berkembang dan tidak akan habis. Tetapi ilmu manusia itu sangatlah terbatas & berlegar sekitar perkara-perkara yang zahir (tidak ghaib) sahaja! Yang cukup menjadi musibah kepada umat islam dalam falsafah ini ialah, menggabungkannya dengan ilmu syarak khususnya tauhid. Bermakna, si fulan cuba memahami ilmu tauhid ini menggunakan falsafah Yunan, Mesir, India dan lain-lain lagi. Sedangkan falsafah-falsafah tersebut sangat bertentangan dengan pemahaman al-Quran dan Sunnah serta pemahaman salaful ummah! Tidak mengapa jika mengambil manfaat teori-teori mereka itu dalam bidang perubatan, arkitek, matematik, astronomi dan lain-lain bidang akademik. Tetapi jangan sesekali mencampur adukkan agama islam dan pemahamannya melalui falsafah-falsafah mereka. Orang akan berkata; "Bukankah didalam islam juga terdapat falsafah? Kerana itu terdapat falasifah islam terkenal seperti al-Farabi (339H), al-Kindi (252H), Ibnu Sina (428H), Ibnu Bajah (533H), Ibnu Thufail (581H), Ibnu Rusyd al-Hafid(595 H) Ibnu Maskuwaih (421H), al-Ghazali (505H) dan lain-lain?".
Persoalannya ialah; bilakah ilmu falsafah ini dikenali dan dipelajari umat islam? Jawapanya ialah Pada kurun ketiga! Selepas zaman Khalifah al-Makmun. Justeru dalam islam ini tidak wujud falsafah! Adakah islam ini tidak sempurna sebelum kedatangan falsafah sehingga perlu kepada ilmu-ilmu menyimpang tersebut? Tidak cukupkah al-Quran, Sunnah & pemahaman sahabat sebagai sumber? Ulama dan imam-imam terkenal yang tidak pernah mempelajari falsafah dan tidak memahami agama dengan falsafah adakah mereka sesat? Sebenarnya, penggunaan istilah "Tokoh Falsafah Islam" adalah tidak tepat. Yang wujud & lebih tepat ialah; "Tokoh Falsafah Yang Menisbahkan dirinya kepada Islam" inilah istilah yang sebenar kepada istilah "Falisafatul Muslimin". Mungkin ramai yang tidak bersetuju, tidak mengapa, Itu hak mereka. Cuma yang jelas ialah, falsafah itu bukanlah ilmu yang memberi manfaat kepada AGAMA. Bahkan mudharatnya sangat besar seperti yang jelaskan oleh para ulama. Yang diprotes disini adalah jika cuba memahami agama islam dan akidahnya melalui falsafah!
Apakah itu Falsafah?
Philosophie adalah kalimah Yunan bermaksud; ilmu hikmah @ makrifah. Falsafah ialah mencari dan mengambil pengetahuan. Sumber falsafah menurut Aflatun (Plato) ialah ketakjuban kepada sesuatu iaitu memandang sesuatu lalu takjub dan terkejut dengannya kemudian berusaha mencari penyelesaian dan memahaminya. Terdapat banyak definisi berkaitan dengan ilmu falsafah ini antaranya seperti berikut;
1) Socrates; falsafah ialah kajian akal tentang hakikat kepada sesuatu yang membawa kepada kebaikan, iainya membahaskan tentang kewujudan semulajadi, kecantikan perundangannya dan prinsip-prinsip alam dan pencipta pertama @ punca pertama kepada sesuatu".
2) Aflatun :"Falsafah ialah kajian kepada hakikat kewujudan dan undang-undangnya yang bagus bagi mengetahui pereka yang pertama (pencipta) dan bagi falsafah kemulian yang mengatasai sekalian ilmu".
3) Aristotle; "Falsafah ialah ilmu umum dan didalamnya pengetahuan tentang topic-topik ilmu seluruhnya ianya mengetahui cakrawala dan sebab-sebab kewujudannya, perinsip-prinsipnya yang jelas dan punca kepada sesuatu (penciptanya).
4) Al-Farabi; "Falsafah ialah ilmu tentang kewujudan sesuatu kenapa ianya diwujudkan".
5) Sodruddin al-Syirazi: "Falsafah ialah kesempurnaan jiwa insan dengan mengetahui hakikat-hakikat sesuatu perkara yang wujud".
6) John locke; "Falsafah ialah pembelajaran tentang akal manusia".
Fatwa ulama dan pendirian mereka terhadap falsafah;
1)Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (Wafat 505 H).
Beliau digelar sebagai Hujjatul Islam kerana tentangan hujahnya terhadap falsafah. Beliau memahami dan mendalami falsafah tetapi kadang-kadang pandangan beliau berbeza-beza akibat kesan falsafah yang dipelajarinya. Mungkin kerana pengaruh kuat falsafah pada zaman tersebut menyebabkan beliau sedikit terkesan. Apapun beberapa pandangannya terpuji dan banyak menyelamatkan umat islam pada ketika itu. Antara bukti penolakan beliau terhadap falsafah dan mantik Yunan ini ialah kitabnya berjudul; "Al-Munqiz Min al-Dholal" dan "Tahafut al-Falasifah". Dua kitab ini adalah serangan-serangan beliau terhadap Falsafah yang kemuncaknya ialah pengkafiran beliau terhadap pandangan tokoh-tokoh islam yang terpengaruh dengan falsafah[1]. Dalam kitab Tahafut m/s 74 beliau menyatakan; "Hendaklah diketahui bahawa menceburkan diri dalam hikayat khilaf-khilaf falsafah adalah terlalu panjang, sesungguhnya percakapan mereka panjang, perbalahan mereka terlalu banyak, pandangan-pandangan mereka tersebar, jalan-jalan mereka saling bertentangan dan terlalu jauh". Beliau juga berpendapat bahawa mazhab-mazhab falsafah tidak ada keyakinan didalamnya dan tidak tetap. Ini kerana mereka bergantung dengan sesuatu yang berbentuk sangkaan. Atas dasar inilah (sangkaan) hujah-hujah mereka dalam masalah ketuhanan tertegak, sebab itulah mereka sentiasa berselisih dalam masalah tersebut.
Kemudian Imam al-Ghazali mengisyaratkan bahawa kesalahan mereka (falsafah) yang mereka telah terjerumus kedalamnya ialah pada 20 usul, wajib mengkafirkan 3 usul tersebut sementara yang selebihnya dibidaahkan. Dalam Tahafut al-Falasifah beliau berkata; "Adapun 3 permasalahan, sesungguhnya mereka telah menyalahi umat islam keseluruhannya. Iaitu pada kata-kata mereka bahawa;
1) Sesungguhnya jasad itu tidak akan dibangkitkan…."
2) Sesungguhnya Allah hanya mengetahui perkara yang kuliyyah (perkara-perkara besar sahaja) adapun juz'iyyat (perkara-perkara kecil) maka Allah tidak mengetahuinya…"
3) Kata-kata mereka bahawa alam semesta ini adalah bersifat Qadim (lama) dan azali (kekal)".
2)Ibnul Jauzi (Wafat 597H).
Beliau juga menjelaskan dan berpendirian bahawa ahli falsafah muslim yang menisbahkan dirinya kepada islam telah terpesong. Ini hanyalah kerana mereka mengikut jejak falsafah Yunan dalam semua perkara yang dilontarkan dalam mazhab-mazhab dan pandangan mereka (Yunan). Beliau berkata; "Hanyasanya iblis mampu membelit dan memesongkan mereka dari sudut mereka ini hanya bergantung kepada pandangan-pandangan dan akal semata-mata. Mereka berkata-kata menurut persangkaan mereka sahaja tanpa memandang kepada para Anbiya". Talbis Iblis m/s 59.
3)Ibnus Solah (Wafat 643H);
Pandangan beliau lebih keras, tatkala ditanya tentang falsafah dan mantiq, hukum mempelajarinya serta ahli falsafah yang menisbahkan dirinya kepada islam, beliau memberi fatwa haram dan mengkafirkan golongan falsafah ini. Berikut adalah fatwa beliau sebagai contoh;
Terdapat jemaah islam yang menisbahkan diri mereka kepada ahli ilmu dan tasauf, adakah boleh seseorang menekuni karangan-karangan Ibnu Sina dan membaca kitab-kitabnya? Dan bolehkah menganggap beliau (Ibnu Sina) sebagai ulama @ tidak? Beliau menjawab; "Tidak boleh bagi mereka melakukan perkara tersebut, sesiapa yang melakukannya maka dia telah memperdayakan agamanya dan terbuka kepada fitnah yang sangat besar. Dia itu (Ibnu Sina) bukanlah seorang ulama, bahkan syaitan diantara syaitan-syaitan manusia, dan kadang-kadang beliau itu (Ibnu Sina) adalah binatang…". Lihat (Fatawa Wa Masail Fi Tafsir Walhadis Wal Usul Wal Fiqh) Ibnus Solah m/s 208.
4)Syeikhul Islam Ibnu Taimiyyah (Wafat 728H).
Tokoh yang dikurniakan keajaiban ilmu & hujjah oleh Allah ini telah berdepan dengan hujah-hujah falsafah dan mematahkannya dari akar umbi. Serangan-serangan ilmiah beliau berpandukan kepada akal yang soheh yang tidak lari daripada landasan al-Kitab dan as-Sunnah telah menghilangkan keyakinan umat islam terhadap ilmu karut ini dan menyebabkan ramai umat kembali kepada ajaran wahyu. Tulisan-tulisan beliau yang banyak, menjadi saksi kepada keilmuan syeikhul islam, kekuatan hujjah, ketinggian pemahaman, ketajaman fikiran, kefahaman tinggi beliau terhadap perbincangan-perbincangan falsafah. Antara karangan beliau yang menjurus kepada perbincangan dan permasalahan falsafah dan mantiq ialah; "Dar'u Ta'arud al-Aqlu Wan Naql", "Ar-Radd Alal Mantiqiyyin", "Naqdul Mantiq", Ar-Risalah Tudmuriyyah", & " Risalatu Radd Ala Aqa'id al-Falasifah".
Beliau menyatakan dalam muqaddimah kitabnya (Nasihah Ahlul Iman Fi Raddi Ala Mantiqil Yunan) yang telah diringkaskan oleh Imam Jalaluddin as-Suyuti (911H) dengan tajuk (Juhdul Qarihah Fi Tajrid an-Nasihah); "Sesungguhnya aku sentiasa tahu bahawa mantiq yunan ini tidak diperlukan oleh orang-orang cerdik dan ianya tidak memberi manfaat kepada orang-orang yang bodoh"[2].
5)Ibnu Qayyim al-Jauziyyah (Wafat 751H)
Pandangan beliau juga seperti ulama-ulama yang sebelumnya. Menolak dan menghalang umat islam terhadap falsafah Yunan dan mantiq mereka kerana ianya mengandungi kerosakan dan kesesatan selain kesan-kesan lain kepada mereka yang mendalaminya. Diantara karangan beliau yang menjelaskan permasalahan ini ialah; (Miftah Darus Sa'adah), (Ighosatul Lahfan Min Masoid as-Syaiton) & (as-Sowaiq al-Mursalah Alal Jahmiyyah Wal Muattilah). Beliau berkata; "Sesungguhnya telah menceritakan pendita-pendita falsafah bahawa orang pertama yang dikenali mengatakan alam ini adalah Qadim ialah Aristotle. Dia ini adalah seorang musyrik penyembah berhala. Dalam permasalahan ketuhanan mempunyai kata-kata yang semuanya salah daripada awal sampai akhir. Pandangan-pandangannya telah ditolak diingkari oleh beberapa golongan islam sehinggakan oleh Jahmiyyah, Muktazilah, Qadariyyah, Rafidhoh dan ahli falsafah muslim. Aristotle ini telah datang dengan sesuatu yang diperlekehkan oleh golongan berakal"[3].
6)Imam as-Suyuti (Wafat 911 H)
Beliau telah menyebutkan bahawa ramai dikalangan mereka yang mengkaji dan menghabiskan masanya dengan Mantiq Yunan sebenarnya tidak menekuninya dan tidak memahaminya. Kemudian golongan ini mempertahankan mereka (falsafah Yunan) dalam keadaan mereka ini jahil tanpa ilmu. Mereka ini menolak fatwa-fatwa Ibnus Solah tentang pengharaman falsafah samada mempelajarinya ataupun mengajarinya.
As-Suyuti telah bersetuju dengan fatwa-fatwa Ibnus Solah melalui isyarat beliau kepada sebab penulisan kitabnya (Shounul Mantiq Wal Kalam An Fannil Mantiq Wal kalam) ialah kerana mahu menjelaskan kebenaran apa-apa yang telah disebut oleh Ibnus Solah berkait pengharaman mendalami Mantiq Yunan. Imam as-Suyuti berkata; "Sesungguhnya aku lihat untuk mengarang kitab yang menjelaskan pengharamannya-mantiq yunan- melalui jalan-jalan ijtihad dan istidlal yang jami' (menyeluruh) & mani' (kuat) dan dengan menyampaikan kebenaran. Aku menerangkan didalamnya kebenaran apa-apa yang dinyatakan oleh Ibnus Solah tentang penafian keharusan kepada yang tersebut. Maka tatkala disyariatkan perkara tersebut (menjelaskan kebenaran), menjadi kelaziman daripadanya membawakan pendapat imam-imam dalam larangan mereka mendalami ilmu kalam kerana diantara keduanya (mantiq yunan dan ilmu kalam) terdapat persamaan"[4].
Kesimpulan;
Setelah penjelasan ringkas kepada pendirian para ulama tersebut, justeru menjadi suatu kewajipan menjelaskan kesilapan & kesalahan yang terkandung dalam kitab-kitab ahli falsafah islam seperti Ibnu Sina, al-Farabi dan yang seangkatan dengan mereka. Sebab itu, anda jangan melatah jika terdapat para ulama yang mengkritik mereka dalam bab tauhid dan agama! Kita tidak mempertikaikan kebaikan dan manfaat ilmu yang ditulis mereka dalam bidang perubatan, optometri, sains, astronomi dan lain-lain ilmu keduniaan. Yang menjadi masalah ialah menganggap tokoh-tokoh ini sebagai ulama agama! Mengambil campur aduk falsafah mereka dalam permasalahan tauhid. Kemudian falsafah tersebut hanyalah klon kepada falsafah Yunan yang dipenuhi dengan keberhalaan dan khayalan akal. Sebab itulah ramai ulama yang melarang mempelajari ilmu falsafah ini kecuali setelah mendalami ilmu agama dan atas dasar mengelakkan diri daripada kesesatan dan untuk menjawap kesalahan-kesalahan mereka. Adapun kerana takjub dan mengagungkan falsafah, kemudian menjadi pendokong kuat falsafah lalu membelakangkan nas-nas wahyu al-Kitab dan Sunnah, maka hukumnya adalah haram seperti yang dijelaskan oleh ramai ulama.
Ibnu khaldun dalam al-Muqaddimah memberi peringatan kepada mereka yang mahu mempelajari falsafah; "…..Dan hendaklah sesiapa yang mahu melihat kepadanya (falsafah) setelah penuh ilmu syariatnya (agamanya) dan setelah mendalami kitab-kitab tafsir dan feqh. Janganlah seseorang itu mencurahkan masanya kepada falsafah sedangkan dia kosong daripada ilmu-ilmu agama. Maka amat sedikitlah mereka yang terselamat daripada isi kandungannya"[5].
Secara ringkasnya, pendirian ulama dalam masalah falsafah dan mantiq terbahagi kepada dua, samada mengharamkan terus dan cukup dengan ilmu-ilmu islam ataupun mengharuskannya tetapi dengan syarat-syarat tertentu. Persoalannya ialah, sudah cukupkah ilmu agama yang kita miliki untuk menjadi amalan dan menjadi benteng daripada kesesatan? Sedangkan falsafah itu tabiatnya ialah kata-kata yang terlalu panjang dan berbelit-belit walaupun hanya untuk menyampaikan maksud yang sekelumit? Sudah terlalu banyak contoh kegelinciran tokoh-tokoh islam yang lampau disebabkan falsafah Yunan, lalu adakah anda bersedia menjadi mangsanya pula? Semoga Allah mengurniakan hidayah dan jalan kebenaran kepada kita semua. Tetap dan thabat mengikuti petunjuk para Anbiya' khususnya Nabi Muhammad Alaihissolatu Wassalam. Wallahua3lam.
Philosophy as defined by ancient thinkers is the Science of wisdom. It embraces all branches of knowledge, hence a philosopher in the time of the Greeks was recognized as a truly wise man.
Greek Philosophy
Greek philosophy had become dead in Europe and its teaching was banned by the Church as its knowledge made people inactive and irreligious. The Arabs revived Greek philosophy and it was through Kindi, Farabi, Avicenna and Averroes that the West learnt about Aristotle, Plato and Socrates. Arabian philosophy began with the warm reception of Greek philosophy in Arabia, when it had vanished from its original soil, and whilst western Europe was still too crude and ignorant to be its home.
Arabian Philosophy
Arabian philosophy at the outset of its career in the 9th AD century was able without difficulty to take possession of these resources for speculative thought which Latins had barely achieved at the close of the 12th century by the slow process of rediscovering the Aristotelian Logic from the commentaries and verses of Boethius."
Al Kindi, Farabi and Averroes were three of the numerous "philosophers" of Muslim science. I use the quotes to indicate that there is actually some problem with their "philosophy." You see the Quran and the teachings of Muhammad, peace be upon him, are quite clear in mentioning that Muslims need nothing more than these two sources of knowledge for their science and wisdom (note the definition on the left panel). These well known "thinkers" in Islam brought about a new era in which mankind was left to make up his own mind in how he would like to look at things, especially when it came to the nature of the deity (Allah). The concept that a man could be "perfect" or "god-like" is simply against the very essence of Islam according to the Quran and the teachings of Muhammad, peace be upon him. He did not teach that he was perfect and flawless as some of contended. Rather, he emphasized that in fact, he was a human just as the rest of us. The "free thinkers," Sufis, philosophers and secularists all share a common denominator; the deviate far from main line Islam to satisfy their own faultering egos.
Secularism and philosophy are the first signs of the scholars leaving the simple beauty and magnificence of Islam.
Having asserted my own understanding according to whatever small insight I may or may not have regarding this field, I now offer you the findings of the modern world and opinions according to those who support this "philosophy."
Let us start with the Abbasid Caliphate, also known as the Abbasid Dynasty or Abbasid Empire (take your pick). The Abbasid rule was influenced by Persian culture as it provided the most congenial atmosphere for the development of learning especially philosophy, Secular philosophy found its first entrance into the Muslim world through the Persian administrators of the early Abbasid Caliphate. The Abbasid Caliph, Harun-ar-Rashid(this ruler was famous and well known for his unusual cruelty and nasty temper) had some of the works of Aristotle translated into Arabic for the first time. His successor Mamun-ar-Rashid founded the well-known Darul Hukama (House of Wisdom) where the translation of books from foreign languages into Arabic was made by eminent translators who were employed on handsome salaries by the talented Caliph. His great patronage of learning attracted men of letters from all parts of the world who were engaged in translation and research work. The translation of the works of Aristotle and Plato paved the way for the growth of Islamic philosophy. The harmonization of Greek philosophy with Islam was started by Al-Kindi, continued by Farabi and was completed by Ibn Sina and Ibn Rushd. Of the great Muslim philosophers Al-Kindi belonged to Basrah, Farabi, Ghazali and. Ibn Sina hailed from Turkistan and Persia, while Ibn Rushd, Ibn Bajja and Ibn Tufail who rivaled their Eastern counterparts were natives of Muslim Spain.
Al-Kindi (Died / 873 AD), considered by some to be the greatest philosopher of the Arab race, is known as the "Philosopher of the Arabs." He translated and wrote commentaries on a number of works by Aristotle. Being a natural philosopher he elaborately discussed the doctrine of soul and intelligence. The divine intelligence is the cause of the existence of the world. According to him, the world as a whole is the work of an extremely active cause, the divine intelligence, whose activity is transmitted in many ways from above to the world. Between God and the world of bodies is the world of soul, which created the world of Heavenly spheres, In so far as the human soul is combined with the body, it is dependent on the influence of heavenly bodies, but in its spiritual origin and being it is free. Both immortality and freedom could be attained in the world of intelligence. It was in De Intellectu, the Latin translation of Al-Kindi's philosophical work, that the West discovered for the first time the doctrine of intelligence.
Towards the close of the 10th century AD there flourished in Basrah a Philosophical Society known as Ikhwan-al-Safa (Brethren of Purity). They tried unsuccessfully to reconcile religion with science. Their encyclopedic work consisting of 51 treatises contain the idea of goodness and moral perfection. They had a leaning towards Pythagorean speculations. Abu Masr Farabi (d/950 A. D.) whose philosophical system according to George Sarton, 'Is a syncretism of Platoism, Aristotelianism and Sufism," was the founder of the Turkish School of Philosophy. He was an exponent of Neo-Platonic Philosophy, a system which was originated by Al-Kindi and was developed by Ibn Sina. There is a marked difference between the philosophical approach of Farabi, which is deductive, rational and abstract and that of Zakariya Razi which is inductive, experimental and concrete. The two systems in fact present two sides of the same picture Razi being a naturalist emphasized the experimental side while Farabi having been inclined towards mysticism looked to the speculative and abstract side. In Ibn Sina these two systems are reunited though Ibn Sina is more methodical in his approach. The difference between Farabi and Ibn Sina is more pronounced on the question of the immortality of the soul which is accepted by the former and rejected by the latter. Like Plato, Farabi is a mystical thinker, whose reasoning finally leads him to mysticism and metaphysics. He was a Savant in the true sense of the word, and led a life of minimum wants. With him like all other mystics contemplation dominated action. He has tried to give philosophical and rational explanations of such intricate religious problems as prophecy, inspiration, heavens, destiny and Celestial Throne. Prophecy according to him is a form of moral perfection rather than an innate gift. In this way he is recognized as the founder of philosophical theology, which later on found its great exponent in Fakhruddin Razi. He was also the first to preach practical morality by recognizing that the faculty of discerning good from evil is possessed by oneself.
Zakariya Al-Razi (865--925 A. D.) the eminent physician and scientist of Islam composed a number of metaphysical, philosophical and ethical works which have perished and only a few pieces are still available. Al-Razi professes the existence of five eternal principles in metaphysics--namely the Creator, the soul, matter, time and space, In spite of his pessimistic outlook in metaphysics he is opposed to asceticism and believes in working for the welfare of the people. Like Aristotle he does not blame human passion but only its excessive indulgence. He believed in the evolution of scientific and philosophical knowledge and in this respect he is much ahead of his predecessors.
Ibn Sina (980--1037 A. D.) the most illustrious name amongst the oriental Muslims, whose rational philosophy tried to explain religious dogmas in the light of reason and thus invited severe criticism from Imam Ghazali. Like his predecessors he tried to harmonize abstract philosophy with religion. His main philosophical works are Kitab-as-Shifa, (The Book of Recovery), Al-Najat (The Salvation) and The Isharat (Instructions). His Kitab-as-Shifa, dealing with metaphysics, physics and logic had deeply influenced Western as well as Eastern philosophy. His philosophical works reflected a conflict between materialism and idealism. He expounded the philosophical doctrines of Farabi and followed him in logic and epistemology. He has more clearly brought out the dualism of mind and matter, God and the world. The doctrine of the immortality of the soul is more definitely laid down by him. His philosophy brings out his scientific and progressive outlook. His compromise with Muslim theology did not find favor in orthodox circles and his philosophical works were burned in Baghdad. He explained the moving, changing and developing state of nature. His philosophy is the necessary link between the philosophy of Farabi and Ghazali on one hand and that of Ibn Rushd (Averroes) on the other.
Abu Hamid Al-Ghazali (1058-1111 A. D.) the great Muslim theologian and philosopher realized that the study of secular philosophy had resulted in an indifference towards religion. He renounced the life of pleasure and wandered in the Islamic world in search of mental peace. The conflict which had started in him gave him no rest and was fully brought out in his monumental work Ihyaal Ulum, which ranks amongst the greatest ethical works of Islam. He attacked the rationalistic and materialistic views of his predecessors including that of Ibn Sina and ultimately found solace in mysticism. His severe criticism of materialistic philosophy was afterwards answered by Ibn Rushd (Averroes). In Islam the theological system entrenched itself towards the end of the 12th century A. D. in the narrow orthodoxy of the Isharites. The entire ethical philosophy of Al-Ghazali rests on the foundation of mysticism. He had himself gone through the different phases of worldly life--namely scholastic discussions, the pride of high office, popularity among the people and the pomp and wealth. He had personally experienced the effects of such contacts on one's character. He has described these experiences in his immortal Ihyaal Ulum. His writings started a school of religious philosophy and influenced such outstanding thinkers as Maulana Rum, Shaikhul Ashraq, Ibn Rushd and Shah Waliullah. Al-Ghazali was mainly responsible for infusing mysticism into Persia and directing it into the right channels. He tried to reconcile the tenets of Islam with the teaching of the prevailing philosophy and science but not in a purely rational way as done by Farabi and Ibn Sina. His Ihyaal Ulum was widely read by Jews, Christians and Muslims alike and influenced Thomas Aquinas and even Blaise Pascal.
Ibn Rushd (1126--1198 A. D.) better known as Averroes in the West is undoubtedly the greatest philosopher of Islam, Together with Ibn Masarra and Ibnul Arabi, he Forms the trio of the great philosophers of Muslim Spain. The first two were essentially mystics while the third (Averroes) was a rationalist. He rose to be the greatest commentator of and exponent of Aristotelian philosophy. It was through his commentaries that the West learnt about Aristotle.
His Chief philosophical work is Tahafut-alTahafut (The incoherence of the incoherence) which was written in refutation of Al-Ghazali's work, Tahafut-al-Fahasifa (The destruction of philosophy). The philosophical writings of Averroes invited severe criticism and stirred up critical reactions throughout the Islamic world. A strong refutation of Ibn Rushd's arguments in Tahafut-al-Tahafut was made by a Turk, Mustafa Ibn Yusuf al-Bursavi, commonly known as Khwaja Zada (d/1487-88 AD). This once more established the strength of faith and the weakness of human understanding. But contrary to Muslim reactions, Averroes philosophical writings had a deep influence on Christian Europe. Alfred Gillaume in his article on philosophy and theology in the Legacy of Islam. writes that' "He (Averroes) belongs to Europe and European thought rather than to the East. Averroism continued to be a living factor in European thought until the birth of modern experimental science, Latin is said to have preserved more than one of Ibn Rushd's works which Arabic has lost."'
Regarding predestination, Ibn Rushd maintained that man was neither the absolute master of his destiny nor bound by fixed, immutable decrees. According to him the truth lies in the middle, i.e., Al-Amr Bain · AL-Amrain. Human actions depend partly on free will and partly on outside causes. These causes spring from the general laws of nature--God alone knows their sequence. According to him man should make the utmost effort to attain perfection by which he means, complete identification with the alive intellect. This human perfection can be attained through study, speculation and negation of desires-specially those relating to senses.
This philosophy was considered to be irreligious in Muslim Spain where the society was formulated on true Arabic lines. Being a rational philosopher, his ideas were incompatible with the religious sentiments of orthodox Muslims and he was accused of being an atheist. But according to Philip K. Hitti, 'He was a rationalist and claimed the right to submit everything save the revealed dogmas of faith to the judgment of reason, but he was not a freethinker or unbeliever. His view of creation by God was evolutionary not a matter of days but of eternity"."
Averroism had a great influence on Europe. Jews became the greatest exponents of Averroism in the West. In Southern France, the philosophical thought was influenced by Averroists. At Oxford Averroes was known as the great commentator and Bacon ranked him alongside Aristotle and Ibn Sina (Avicenna). Averroism continued to be taught in the universities of Northern Italy including Padua which was its great center. Other well-known philosophers of Muslim Spain were Ibn Baija, Ibn Tufail and Ibnul Arabi. Ibn Bajja (d/1138 AD) known as Avempace in the West has explained in his treatise Tadbir al-Mutawahhid (The Regime of Solitary), how man unaided can attain union with the active intellect. He considered that gradual perfection of the human spirit through union with the Divine is the object of philosophy. The Philosophus Antodiduclus of Ibn Tufail (d/ll85 AD) became a world classic.
Ibnul Arabi (1165--1240 A. D.) the greatest speculative genius of Islamic Sufism was born in Murcia (Spain). According to Ibnul Arabi the divine power manifests itself in the form of a perfect man which is of course, Muhammad (Peace be on him). His writings on mysticism influenced not only Persian and Turkish Sufi circles but also Duns Scots, Roger Bacon and Raymond Lull. The greatest exponent of mysticism in the East was Al-Suhrawardi (1191 AD).
Nasiruddin Toosi (1201--74 AD) wrote a large number of philosophical, metaphysical and theological treatises. In orthodox circles his fame chiefly rests on these treatises. His Kitab al-Fasul dealing with metaphysics was written in Persian, which was translated into Arabic by al-Jurjani. His great philosophical work Tajrid al-dqaid (AI-KaEam) is his most popular work on which a large number of commentaries have been written in Arabic, Persian and Turkish. His outstanding work on ethics entitled, Ikhlaq-i-Naasiri (Nasirian Ethics) is one of the best books on the subject and is still taught in Arab schools.
Islam had developed a Religious Philosophy of its own which is called Ilm-ul-Kalaam or Science of the word. The secular and scholastic philosophy receded into the background in the East after the vehement criticism of such philosophy by Imam Ghazali. But the philosophical and religious writings of Ghazali gave a fillip to religious philosophy and especially to mysticism and produced such outstanding religious philosophers as well as mystics as Fakhruddin Razi, Nasiruddin Toosi, Fariduddin Attar, Maulana Jalaluddin Rumi, Ameer Khusro and Dr. Iqbal. The development of Islamic philosophy, thus took a new turn in which the later philosophers have made outstanding contributions--both through Prose and Poetry.
